Prof. KANU, Ikechukwu Anthony, O.S.A
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
Tansian University, Umunya
Anambra State
A paper presented at the Global Summit of the Journalists International Forum For Migration (JIFORM), held at the Nigerian National Merit Awards Secretariat, Maitama, Abuja, on November 26th – 27th 2019
Abstract
The United Nations Report on Migration in 2019, observes that the number of international migrants worldwide has continued to grow over the past seventeen years, reaching 272 million in 2019, up from 258 million in 2018, 248 million in 2015, 220 million in 2010, 191 million in 2005 and 173 million in 2000. Between 2000 and 2005, the international migrant stock grew by an average of 2 per cent per year. During the period 2005-2010, the annual growth rate accelerated, reaching 2.9 per cent. With the growth in the number of migrants, issues such as xenophobia have emerged on the front pages of human relationship at the international level, raising questions such as: How does my relationship with another affect my humanity? Does the issue of origin and identity affect and supersede the question of equality and dignity? Is the migrant less human than those who are not migrants? Is it possible to strike a balance between “what is good” and the “politics of fear”? The present work carves it niche by studying the phenomenon of xenophobia within the ecology of African philosophy of migration. For the purpose of this study, the complementary approach, which marks the identity of African philosophy, would be employed. Contrary to popular perspectives, to explain the phenomenon of xenophobia, the scape-goating theory would be patronized as a sociological theory for dissection of prejudice in a period of change and social transition.
Keywords: Xenophobia, African, Philosophy, Migration, Complementarity, Ecology
Introduction
A cursory glance at the historical evolution of philosophy reveals that for centuries, philosophers from Kant to Walzer have raised questions about the freedom of movement, state coercion, liberty, citizenship and belonging. Recent discourses in the area of Migration have continued to attract the attention of philosophers of different schools of thought and affiliations. And gradually, philosophers are beginning to find points of convergence between philosophy and migration. The questions that these thinkers have attempted at borders on identity, ethics and anthropology. Questions such as: what do these situations tell us about human dignity and the value of human life? How does my relationship with another affect my humanity? Does the issue of origin and identity affect and supersede the question of equality and dignity? Is the migrant less human than those who are not migrants? Is it possible to strike a balance between “what is good” and the “politics of fear”? On what values would a fairer migration policy be based’? How can thinking help to break down existing paradigms of ‘us and them’? Are there inconsistencies and inhumanities in the current approach to migration? These are fundamental questions that go beyond the twitter and facebook responses to the phenomenon of migration, usually responses of a pragmatic fashion or after the usual persuasive political rhetoric, instead of one that delivers with philosophical insight (Kanu 2019).
In the 1950s, when African states started gaining independence from their colonial masters, their antidote to the destructive Balkanisation of their continent under colonialism was pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism was a movement which began in the 1920s that emphasized the unity and strength of Africans and people of African descent around the world. Thus, it held that Africans had a common history and that their destiny belonged together. In Africa, it was championed by leaders such as Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah, Nigeria’s Nnamdi Azikiwe, Tanzania’s Julius Nyerere, among others. This pan-African movement notwithstanding, a new spirit has emerged in Africa: xenophobia. The present work carves out it’s niche by studying the phenomenon of xenophobia within the ecology of African philosophy. In the face of the rising phenomenon of xenophobia, what can the African philosophical perspective contribute to the on-going discussions? For the purpose of this study, the complementary approach, which marks the identity of African philosophy, would be employed. Contrary to popular perspectives, to explain the phenomenon of xenophobia, the scape-goating theory would be patronized as a sociological theory for dissection of prejudice in a period of change and social transition. However, what is xenophobia?
Xenophobia: Questions of Meaning, Theory and Causes
The word xenophobia is taken from the Greek words xénos, meaning ‘the stranger’ and ‘the guest’ and phóbos, meaning ‘fear’. Thus, Smelser and Baltes (2001) speak of xenophobia as ‘fear of the stranger’, but usually the term is taken to mean ‘hatred of strangers’. It is also within this parameter that Klaude (2001) understands xenophobia as “an attitudinal orientation of hostility against non-natives in a given population”(p.2). However, at the International level, no universally accepted definition of xenophobia exists, though it can be described as attitudes, attributes, prejudices and behaviors that reject, exclude and often vilify persons, based on the perception that they are outsiders or foreigners to the community, society or national identity.
There is a close link between racism and xenophobia. In fact, they are two terms that can hardly be differentiated from each other (UNESCO 2019; Kanu 2019a). However, while xenophobia and racism often overlap, they are distinct phenomena. Whereas racism usually entails distinction based on physical characteristic differences, such as skin colour, hair type, facial features, etc., xenophobia implies behavior based on the idea that the other is foreign to or originates from outside the community or nation (UNESCO 2019). The difficulty in differentiating the two concepts or experiences is often based on the fact that differences in physical characteristics are often taken to distinguish the ‘other’ from the common community. It is often difficult to differentiate between racism and xenophobia as motivations for behaviour.
After the 2008 xenophobic attack in South Africa, their government blamed it on the criminal elements, opposition and sinister forces. At the time, the Minister of Intelligence blamed both criminals for playing a role in the attack, and foreigners for instigating the xenophobic violence. After the 2019 xenophobic attacks, Mozambicans and Nigerians who were the key targets were considered by the media as the cause because they were alleged the key perpetrators of illegal immigration and drug dealing. These perspectives notwithstanding, to explain the phenomenon of xenophobia, the scape-goating theory is employed as a sociological theory for the interpretation of the phenomenon (Allport 1961). The theory believes that it is frustration that leads to prejudice, mainly from marginalized local groups who identify foreigners as scapegoats. People displace their frustration onto convenient targets, thereby obscuring the actual causes of their anxiety. Hostile attitudes are formed in relation to unmet promises and limited resources, such as housing, education, healthcare and employment, coupled with high expectations during transition (Morris 1998; Tshitereke 1999). Thus, a ‘frustration scapegoat’ is created, who is perceived as the key reason for the local population’s continuous poverty and deprivation (Tshitereke 1999:4). Connected to this theory are the following causes:
- a. the perspectives of Fungurai (2015) and Soyombo (2008) that xenophobic violence is caused by poverty and unemployment, especially amongst the youth. South Africa’s unemployment rate has risen significantly. The unemployment rate in 1995, a year after transitioning to democracy, stood at 15%. In 2014 year-end unemployment rate was 24.3%. Recently, it has hit 34.6%.
- xenophobia is also associated with jealousy on the part of locals in respect of job opportunities, foreigners agreeing to lower salaries and foreign business successes (Clark 2011:5; Khosa & Malitani 2014)
- foreigners’ attraction to local girls as they can afford to take care of them more than the local men (Dodson & Oelofse 2002:134; Mnyaka 2003)
- the perception of foreigners as cheap laborers who ‘steal’ jobs from the locals (Nyamnjoh 2006:2; Steinberg 2010).
- Charman and Piper (2012) espoused the belief that local shopkeepers whose businesses had suffered because of foreign competition become both hostile and bitter with foreign competition, thus leading to xenophobia.
- using a plethora of derogatory names, characterized by stigmatization and stereotypes in reference to immigrants, have been used by the print media, which has had an influence on the human behaviour of groups of foreign Africans (Ngcamu and Mantzaris 2019).
- The position of the government on immigrants; before the 2008 xenophobic attack in South Africa, it was alleged that the state organs were already geared towards hounding African immigrants while the highest leadership had declared it a state of emergency (Ngcamu and Mantzaris 2019).
- New migration patterns that have developed as an effect of the gradual internationalization of the labor market during the post-colonial era (UNESCO 2019).
- The increasing reality of globalization, gradually transforming us into cosmopolitans on a global conference table (UNESCO 2019).
Selected Xenophobic Activities in Human History
The discourse on selected xenophobic activities in human history is meant to concretize our understanding of xenophobia. The selected xenophobic activities would begin from the international dimensions, which would be narrowed down to concrete experiences of xenophobia in the African context.
- Early Greeks (8 BCE – 2 BCE)
Early indices of xenophobia can be traced to the denigration of foreigners by ancient Greece as ‘Babarians’. This was based on the belief that the Greek people and culture were superior to all others, and the subsequent conclusion that barbarians were naturally meant to be enslaved (Harrison 2002).
- Early Roman (2 BCE – 5 ACE)
Xenophobic sentiments were also present among the ancient Romans who held notions of superiority over all other peoples. In the speech of Manius Acilius that: ‘There, as you know, there were Macedonians and Thracians and Illyrians, all most warlike nations, here Syrians and Asiatic Greeks, the most worthless peoples among mankind and born for slavery’ (Isaac 2006, p.317).
- Germany- Nazi Racial Policy
After the First World War, there emerged an increased use of anti-Semitism and other racial thoughts in political discourse in Germany, which culminated in the ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1933. The Nazi racial policy and the Nuremberg Race Laws against Jews and other non-Aryans represented the most explicit racist policies in Europe in the twentieth century. These laws deprived all Jews as well as other non-Aryans from German citizenship. The official title of the Jews became: ‘Subject of the State’. The Nuremberg Race Laws forbade racially mixed sexual relations and marriage between Aryans and Jews, Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring. Such interracial relations became a criminal and punishable offence under the race laws known as ‘racial pollution’ (Burleigh 1991 and Milton 2001).
- Saudi Arabia
Cases of xenophobia against labor workers who are foreigners, mostly from developing countries have been recorded in Saudi Arabia. Human Rights Watch (2004) observes that African and Asian maids have been persecuted, raped, exploited, under- or unpaid, physically abused, overworked, locked in their places of employment and discriminated. In many of these cases, Parekh (2006) and Gethin (2013) report that the workers are unwilling to report their employers for fear of losing their jobs or further abuse.
- Trans-Sahara Slave Trade
The Arabs were engaged in the purchase of slaves, which were transported through the Sahara to North Africa and Arabia between the 8th and 16th centuries. It was principally between North Africa and the empires of Sudan. The misery of these slaves was enormous (Kanu 2013).
- Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
The end of 16th century saw the decline of the Trans-Sahara Slave Trade and the emergence of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, which shifted attention from the desert to the coasts. The European slave trade was more sophistication than that of the Arab’s. During this trade, about 12 million Africans were transported to Europe and America, where they lived very horrible conditions (Kanu 2013).
- Aliens Compliance Order of 1969
Kofi Busia, the then Prime Minister of Ghana asked Nigerians and other African nationals in the country to leave Ghana. This was born out of the rising economic hardship in Ghana and the increase in the population of non nationals who were then about 20% of Ghana’s total population. About 3 million non nationals left the country at the time as a result of the Aliens Compliance Order.
- Ghana Must Go of 1983
In 1870, with the discovery of oil, Nigeria accommodated the Ghanians among other non nationals, who did so many jobs that Nigerians couldn’t do at the time. In 1980, when the economy went bad, Nigerians blamed the Ghanians and other non nationals for their joblessness. Shehu Shagari gave them few weeks to leave, and if they fail to leave, they would be tried. Power would also be given to Nigerians to deal with any of them after the dealine. During this period, almost 2.5 million none nationals left the country.
- 1994 Genocide
In just 100 days in 1994, about 800,000 people were slaughtered in Rwanda by ethnic Hutu extremists who were 85% of Rwanda at the time. They were targeting members of the minority Tutsi community, as well as their political opponents. In 1959, the Hutus overthrew the Tutsi monarchy and tens of thousands of Tutsis fled to neighbouring countries, including Uganda. The Hutu extremists set up a radio station, RTLM, and newspapers which circulated hate propaganda, urging people to “weed out the cockroaches” meaning kill the Tutsis. The names of prominent people to be killed were read out on radio. This spread hatred and led to the death of many.
- The South Africa Experience
The overall population of South Africa is well over 50 million, however, there are an estimated 3.6 million migrants in the country. About 70% of its foreigners come from neighboring Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Lesotho. The remaining 30% are from Malawi, UK, Namibia, eSwatini, previously known as Swaziland, India and other countries.
The issue of discrimination and even violence against immigrants was already in South Africa before 1994. However, after majority rule in 1994, contrary to expectations, the incidence of xenophobia increased. Between 2000 and March 2008, at least 67 people died in what were identified as xenophobic attacks. In May 2008, a series of xenophobic attacks left 62 people dead. In 2015, there was another nationwide spike in xenophobic attacks against immigrants which prompted a number of foreign governments to repatriate their citizens. The 2019 experience of xenophobic attacks in South Africa has been referred to as the worst in South African history (Nyamnjoh 2014 and Budiman 2019).
Threats, attacks and killings against foreigners in South Africa
Source: Xenowatch, African Centre for Migration and Society 2019
Xenophobic violence incidents by Province, 1994-2018 Gauteng 212 Western Cape 111 KwaZulu-Natal 67 Limpopo 40 Eastern Cape 33 Mpumalanga 22 North West 20 Free State 19 Northern Cape 5 |
Source: Xenowatch, African Centre for Migration & Society 2018
Xenophobia and Being in African Thought
The African philosophy of migration is anchored on the inherent principle of complementary in the African Cosmos. The African cosmos is an ontological horizon that presents being as that which possesses a relational character of mutual relations. Thus, ‘to be’ is to live in solidarity and complementarity, and to live outside the parameters of solidarity and complementarity is to suffer alienation. ‘To be’ is ‘to be with the other’, in a community of beings. According to Iroegbu (1995), this African manner of being is characterized by a common origin, common world-view, common language, shared culture, shared race, colour and habits, common historical experience and a common destiny. Mbiti (1970) classically proverbializes this relationship thus: “I am because we are and since we are, therefore, I am” (p. 108). The African worldview, therefore, is governed by the principle of complementarity, which seeks the conglomeration, the unification, the summation of fragments. It maintains that by the coming together of the individual or parts, a viable and sustainable whole will emerge, and by this, the parts will get to the brim purpose of their existence (Asouzu 2004).
This sense of harmony, community, complementarity and solidarity among the community of beings finds expression right from the philosophy of Tempels (1959). He argues that in Bantu Ontology:
‘Beings forces’ of the universe are not a multiple of independent forces placed in juxtaposition from being to being. All creatures are found in relationship according to the law of hierarchy… Nothing moves in this universe of forces without influencing other forces by its movement. The world of forces is held like a spider’s web of which no single thread can be caused to vibrate without shaking the whole network. (p. 29).
Kagame (1951) agrees with Tempels that reality is force. It is not a force independent of the other, but forces that are in a relationship. He categorized reality into Muntu (human beings), Kintu (things), Hantu (place and time), and Kuntu (modality). In Jahn (1958), NTU becomes the rallying point of being, outside which no being can exist.
The nationalistic movements of the 20th century in Africa, now grouped into National Ideological School of African philosophy, was linked by their emphasis on belongingness. For instance, the Social negritude of Senghor which places the family at the centre of the social structure, thus, man as a person realizes his being in the family structure, and the society has meaning from what the family is. It was on this same principle of complementarity that Nyerere bases his principle of Ujamaa. The choice of socialism over capitalism by Awolowo and the promotion of Pan-Africanism by Nkrumah were based on the distinctive complementary character of African ontology.
Mbiti (1970) in his work on African religion and philosophy also speaks of African ontology as complementary:
The anthropocentric ontology is a complete unity or solidarity which nothing can break up or destroy. To destroy or remove one of these categories is to destroy the whole existence including the destruction of the creator, which is impossible. One mode of existence presupposes all the others, and a balance must be maintained so that these modes neither drift too far apart from one another nor get too close to one another. (p. 16).
Gyekye (1987) in his work on Akan philosophy avers that the individual depends on the community:
The individual’s life depends on identifying oneself with the group.… It is also the ground of the overriding emphasis on the individual’s obligation to the members of the group; it enjoins upon him or her the obligation to think and act in terms of the survival of the group as a whole. In fact one’s personal sense of responsibility is measured in terms of responsiveness and sensitivity to the needs and demands of the group. (p. 156).
Iroegbu (1995) describes being in African ontology as belongingness. In response to the questions, ‘what makes being, being?’, ‘what does it mean to be in the world?’ Iroegbu argues that it is belongingness, thus Being is Belongingness. What then is belongingness? Belongingness is a special noun from the verb ‘to belong’. It means to be part of, Daisein-with or to be a member of a group. Thus Nkemnkia (1999) write that in African ontology, the self is the other:
The meaning of an individual’s life is found in and through his relationship with the Other or Others. In fact it is meaningless to ask oneself “who am I” without having a complete knowledge of the Other, from whom, in the final analysis, one expects the answer. When we say ‘I’, in reality one means ‘You’, that is, the Other. By saying ‘We’ one is essentially saying ‘man’. If this is how things stand, then each ‘I’, is always mediated by ‘the Other’, who is none other than ‘oneself’. In this dialectic each one of us contains exclusively the Other. (pp. 111-112).
Thus, being is located within the context of mutual complementarity of all possible relations in the sense of an existent reality.
On the Question of ‘Otherness’
Life in African ontology is a life of sharedness; one in which another is part thereof. A relationship, though of separate and separated entities or individuals but with a joining of the same whole (Kanu 2015c). A relationship in which case the two or more coming together make each of them a complete whole; it is a diversity of being one with each other. To put the other away removes the balance of being. Kanu (2015d) avers that this presupposes a tailor-made-cloth, measured, cut and sewn to fit into the curves, contours, shape and size, peculiarities and particularities of a being. Thus, every being has a missing part and is at the same time, a missing part. Ewulu (2010), therefore, writes that:
If the other is my part or a piece of me, it means that I need him for me to be complete, for me to be what I really am. The other completes rather than diminishes me. His language and culture make my own stand out and at the same time, they enrich and complement my own. In the presence of his language and culture, the riches and poverty of my language and culture become clear and I see that his own and my own when put together form a richer whole when compared to any of them in isolation… I realize myself in the other because it is in the ‘Thou-ness’ of the Thou that my ‘Is-ness’ is realized. I am ‘I’ because you are ‘You’. Without Thou there is no I. We are ‘We’ because they are ‘They’, and without ‘They’, there is no ‘We’. (p. 189).
As a result of the dynamics of the relationship between the I and the thou, the Igbo would refer to the ‘Other’ as Ibe, which means ‘a piece of’ or ‘a part of’, as in ibe anu (a piece of meat) or ibe ede (a piece of cocoyam). The Igbo would, therefore, refer to the ‘other person’ as ibe m which means ‘my piece’ or mmadu ibe m (my fellow human being). This is the concept also employed in reference to relationships and reciprocity: love one another (hunu ibe unu n’anya), help one another (nyere nu ibe unu aka), respect one another (sopuru nu ibe unu), etc. Since the ‘other’ refers to my own piece, it would, therefore, mean that to love the other is to love oneself, to help the other is to help oneself and to respect the other is to respect oneself. Put the other way round, to hate the other is to hate oneself, to refuse help to the other is to refuse help to oneself and to disrespect the other is to disrespect oneself. From the African perspective, there is a link between the self and the other. This is because the self carries with it the mark of otherness. If reality is one with itself and consistent with itself, that is, different from others, then its uniqueness is always in reference to the other. In the I and the other relation, both participants exist as polarities of relation. I am, as it were, in the other and the other is in me. He is my piece as i am his piece. That which is different from me is ‘my piece’ or ‘my other’. That which is different from us is part of us.
From the foregoing, one can argue that the differences among human beings is absolved in identity, for that which is different from me is part of me ibe m, and, in turn, the identity is absolved in the otherness, because I am part of the other who is different from me. Identity and otherness are in a sense two related concepts, for the one implies the other.
Conclusion
This research is an African philosophical response to the problem of xenophobia in Africa, which suggests a human relationship in terms of the I and the Other. It strongly contends that the future of Africa lies in the dialogue between the I and otherness.In fact, the relationship between migrants and host communities is understood as a dialogical move, which results to increasing expansion, growth and development. To conceptualize the self without the other would be an illusion, as Levinas (1969 & 1981) observes, the other is always irreducibly present as it is implied in the self. The interaction or dialogue between host communities and migrants in Africa leads to a better self knowledge and understanding.
The self as metaphysical unity forms a thesis that is negated by the diversity of the other, which stands to the self as an antithesis, however, with dialogue and relationship emerges a synthesis, a complementary whole, a situation where the self sees itself as part of the whole, and sees the other as part of the self. Wenger (1998) sees the dialogue between the self and the other as the beginning of change and growth- for in the process of encounter and dialogue, the other changes my ethical being and I change that of the other. The other facilitates the self and grounds the being of the self. As the self relates with the other, the self is not only taught but it also learns from the other; for in the other, the self sees what it is not. Thus, identity is a mark of incompleteness which requires the other and the active participation in the other’s identity structure. The idea of complementarity is not in any way a move towards saying that reality is one, or to undermine the need to make a distinction between the self and the other. The fact that reality is interconnected does not in any way mean that reality is one; interconnectedness is not sameness. Any form of inability to identify distinction, is a conceptual weakness. Distinction does not negate separateness.
References
Allport, G.W., 1961, Pattern and growth in personality, Prentice Hall, New York.
Asouzu, I. I. (2004). The methods and principles of complementary reflection in and beyond African philosophy. Calabar: University of Calabar Press.
Boehnke, Klaude in NGO Working Group on Migration and Xenophobia for the World Conference (in International Migration, Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia, 2001. A publication jointly produced by ILO, IOM, OHCHR, in consultation with UNHCR.
Chamberlain, Gethin (13 January 2013). “Saudi Arabia’s treatment of foreign workers under fire after beheading of Sri Lankan maid”. The Guardian. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
Clark, J.D., 2011, ‘Cash, schools, and immigrants: The effects of income and education on xenophobia in South Africa’, Sigma: Journal of Political and International Studies 28(1), 4.
Dodson, B. & Oelofse, C., 2002, ‘Shades of xenophobia: In-migrants and immigrants in Mizamoyethu, Cape Town’, in J. Crush & D. McDonald (eds.), Transnationalism and New African Immigration to South Africa, pp. 124–148, Southern African Migration Project, Cape Town.
Ekwulu, B. I. (2010). Igbo concept of Ibe (the other) as a philosophical solution to the ethnic conflicts in African countries. In B. I. Ekwulu (Ed.). philosophical reflections on African issues (pp. 183-192). Enugu: Delta.
Fungurai, P.N., 2015, Xenophobic attacks in South Africa – redefining apartheid, viewed 04 May 2015, from http://www.transconflict.com/about/
Harrison, Thomas (2002). Greeks and Barbarians. Taylor & Francis.
Human Rights Watch (14 July 2004). “‘Bad Dreams:’ Exploitation and Abuse of Migrant Workers in Saudi Arabia”. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
Iroegbu, P. (1995). Metaphysics: The Kpim of Philosophy. Owerri: International Universities Press.
Isaac, Benjamin H. (2006). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 317.
Jahn, J., Muntu: An outline of the new African culture. New York: Grove Press, 1958.
Kanu, I. A. (2013). The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Historico-Philosophical Analysis. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research. Vol. 10. No. 4. pp. 131-143.
Kanu, I. A. (2015c). Igwebuike as an Igbo-African Philosophy of Education. A paper presented at the International Conference on Law, Education and Humanities. 25th -26th November 2015 University of Paris, France.
Kanu, I. A. (2015d). Igwebuike as the unity of the African philosophical experience. International Conference of the Society for Research and Academic Excellence. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 14th -16th September.
Kanu, I. A. and Ejikemeuwa J. O. Ndubisi (2019). (Eds.). African Migration and Philosophy: Between Cultural Bereavement and Identity. Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany.
Kanu, I. A. (2019). Understanding Migration: Concepts and Definitions. A module presented at the CSOnetMADE capacity building workshop for media agencies on migration reportage. A project of the International Organization for Migration sponsored by the European Union. 21st and 22nd October, 2019, MSP Residence, Plot 1198, House No. 113 Emeka Anyaoku Street, Area 11, Garki Abuja.
Kanu, I. A. (2019). “Igbo Migration and the Future of Traditional Paradigms”. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development. Vol. 2. No. 5. pp. 34-42
Kanu, I. A. (2019). “Migration and Religio-Political Insecurity in Africa”. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development. Vol. 2. No. 4. pp. 36-43
Kanu, I. A. (2019). “The Economies of Poverty and Migration in Africa”. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development. Vol. 2. No. 3. pp. 42-51
Kanu, I. A. (2019). “Migration, Globalization and the Liquidy of African Traditional Religion”. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development. Vol. 2. No. 6.
Khosa, R.M. & Malitani, V., 2014, ‘Challenges in operating micro-enterprises by African foreign entrepreneurs in Cape Town, South Africa’, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 5(10), 205–215.
Mbiti, J. (1970). African religions and philosophy. Nairobi: East African Educational.
Michael Burleigh (7 November 1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945. Cambridge University Press.
Mnyaka, M.M.N., 2003, Xenophobia as a response to foreigners in post-apartheid South Africa and post-exilic Israel: A comparative critique in the light of the gospel and ubuntu ethical principles, University of South Africa, Pretoria.
Morris, A., 1998, ‘“Our fellow South Africans make our lives a living hell”: The lives of Congolese and Nigerians living in Johannesburg’, Ethnic and Racial Studies 21, 6.
Ngcamu, B. S. and Mantzaris, E. (2019). Xenophobic violence and criminality in the KwaZulu-Natal townships. Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. https://td-sa.net/index.php/td/article/view/606/1013
Nyamnjoh, F.B., 2006, Insiders and outsiders: Citizenship and xenophobia in contemporary Southern Africa, Zed Books, New York.
Nyamnjoh, Francis B. (2014). “Exorcising the demons within: Xenophobia, violence and statecraft in contemporary South Africa”. Journal of Contemporary African Studies. 32 (3): 397–401.
Rabiya Parekh (2006-04-04). “World Service – World Have Your Say: South Asian workers in Saudi”. BBC. Retrieved 2011-04-22.
S. H. Milton (2001). ““Gypsies” as social outsiders in Nazi Germany”. In Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus (ed.). Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231.
Smelser, N. J. and Baltes, P. B. (eds.) 2001. International Encyclopaedia of the Social and Behavioural Sciences. Elsevier. Oxford Science Ltd.
Soyombo, O., 2008, ‘Xenophobia in contemporary society: A sociological analysis’, IFE Psychologia: An International Journal 16(2), 85–104.
Steinberg, J., 2010, ‘Mother City offers little in way of succour to foreigners’, Sunday Times, 7 November, 2010, n.p.
Tamir, Christine; Budiman (3 May 2019). “In South Africa, racial divisions and pessimism about democracy loom over elections”. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
Tempel, P., Bantu philosophy. Paris: Presence Africaine, 1945.
Tshitereke, C., 1999, ‘Xenophobia and relative deprivation’, Crossings 3(2), 4–5.
UNESCO (2019) xenophobia. In Social and Human Sciences- Retrieved on 15th November 2019 from https://mail.yahoo.com/d/folders/6
Цена под фундамент
Создание дома вашей мечты – это оригинальная возможность, спланировать и претворить в жизнь нечто воистину уникальное во всех отношениях. Возведение фундамента – это в целом первоначальная модель ремонта, в процессе которой домик строится. При расчете замена фундамента под старым деревянным домом цена предусматривается весьма много факторов. Средняясумма возведения домов фундамента составляет приблизительно от 10$ за кв.метр . Погреб сможет умножить итоговую стоимость каждого объекта недвижимости, предоставляя необходимое помещение ради организации хранения и порой рабочее пространство. Наша профессиональная команда по конструированию и возведенью фундамент под памятник на кладбище цена может помочь выстроить жилище, о котором вы всегда мечтали. От начала до конца наша специализированная компания в Череповец позаботимся о всех без исключения процессах, чтобы заказчику не довелось тревожиться о деталях. Специализированная международная компания в Киселевск несет юридическую ответственность за проект, а не вы, именно поэтому организация в Борисоглебск имеют интерес в том, затем чтобы довести до конца строительство коттеджа быстрее и эффективнее. Узнайте о сваи винтовые для фундамента цены в вытегре у спспециалистовециалистов корпорации.
Hi jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for the educational content!
Bedroom furniture near me
Think update your interior? Check out the innovations products for home use from modern compilation, in her present as products with colorful floral patterns and colors and goods with chic texture finish metallic. Armchair for the garden is undoubtedly integral attribute any villas. In the online store you can purchase reliable furniture for any house. The company will deliver in SENCHURI CITY client absolutely all furniture at desired time days.Prices, those that offers web shop furniture items VENIS (VENICE) nice any customer.In turn low fee may cause certain questions in a relationship high quality products. The catalog which filled numerous items furniture composes exclusively quality enterprise products.
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always a great source of knowledge.
Dear jiformalert.org admin, Thanks for the in-depth post!
Thanks for your marvelous posting! I really enjoyed reading it, you’re a great author.
I will be sure to bookmark your blog and will come back in the foreseeable future.
I want to encourage continue your great writing, have a nice day!
Hi jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well researched.
Write more, thats all I have to say. Literally, it seems as though you relied on the video
to make your point. You obviously know what youre talking
about, why waste your intelligence on just posting videos to
your site when you could be giving us something
informative to read?
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for the well-researched and well-written post!
These are really wonderful ideas in about blogging. You have touched some good points here.
Any way keep up wrinting.
Dear jiformalert.org administrator, You always provide useful links and resources.
Great blog you have here but I was wondering if you knew of
any discussion boards that cover the same topics talked about
here? I’d really like to be a part of online community where I can get suggestions from other
experienced individuals that share the same interest.
If you have any recommendations, please let me know. Cheers!
To the jiformalert.org admin, You always provide useful information.
What a data of un-ambiguity and preserveness
of precious familiarity about unpredicted emotions.
Hi jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for sharing your thoughts!
Hi! This is my 1st comment here so I just wanted to give a quick shout out and tell you I
truly enjoy reading through your blog posts.
Can you suggest any other blogs/websites/forums that deal with the same subjects?
Thanks a ton!
Dear jiformalert.org webmaster, Thanks for the comprehensive post!
Hello jiformalert.org webmaster, You always provide in-depth analysis and understanding.
My family all the time say that I am killing my time here at web,
except I know I am getting knowledge all the time by
reading thes pleasant posts.
To the jiformalert.org admin, You always provide valuable feedback and suggestions.
Your style is really unique compared to other folks I have read stuff from.
I appreciate you for posting when you’ve got the opportunity, Guess I’ll
just bookmark this page.
Hi jiformalert.org owner, Thanks for the well-presented post!
Ahaa, its nice discussion regarding this paragraph
at this place at this website, I have read all that, so now me also commenting here.
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well-formatted and easy to read.
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well-cited and reliable.
Dear jiformalert.org administrator, You always provide clear explanations and step-by-step instructions.
Right here is the right web site for anyone who wants to understand this topic.
You understand so much its almost hard to argue with you (not that I really would
want to…HaHa). You definitely put a fresh spin on a subject that’s
been discussed for many years. Excellent stuff, just great!
Dear jiformalert.org webmaster, You always provide great insights.
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well-formatted and easy to read.
Cool blog! Is your theme custom made or did you download it from somewhere?
A theme like yours with a few simple tweeks would really make my
blog stand out. Please let me know where you got your theme.
Thanks
Hello jiformalert.org admin, Good job!
Dear jiformalert.org owner, You always provide key takeaways and summaries.
Generally I do not learn post on blogs, however I wish to say that this write-up very pressured me to take a look at and do
it! Your writing style has been surprised me.
Thank you, quite nice article.
Hello jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well-supported by research and data.
I visited several websites however the audio feature for audio
songs current at this web site is actually marvelous.
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for the post!
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for the informative post!
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always informative and well-explained.
Very energetic article, I liked that bit. Will
there be a part 2?
To the jiformalert.org admin, You always provide useful information.
Hi jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well researched.
Hi jiformalert.org webmaster, Your posts are always well organized and easy to understand.
Hi, this weekend is good in support of me, as this time i am reading this
impressive informative paragraph here at my
home.
Hi jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well-referenced and credible.
Its such as you read my thoughts! You seem to understand so
much approximately this, like you wrote the guide in it or something.
I feel that you can do with some percent to force the message house a little
bit, however other than that, that is fantastic blog.
A great read. I’ll certainly be back.
To the jiformalert.org admin, Thanks for the well-presented post!
Yes! Finally something about o-article.com.
To the jiformalert.org webmaster, Your posts are always well researched and well written.
Hello Dear, are you actually visiting this web page on a regular basis, if so after that you will absolutely obtain good experience.
To the jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well-supported by research and data.
Dear jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always a great source of information.
Pretty! This was a really wonderful post. Thank you for supplying these details.
Hello jiformalert.org admin, You always provide great insights.
Thanks for finally talking about > Xenophobia And The African Philosophy
Of The Other < Loved it!
Hello jiformalert.org webmaster, Keep up the great work!
Hi jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well structured and easy to follow.
Wonderful website. Plenty of helpful information here. I am sending it to some
buddies ans additionally sharing in delicious. And of
course, thanks to your effort!
To the jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well-supported by research and data.
Hi jiformalert.org webmaster, Good work!
To the jiformalert.org owner, Thanks for the valuable information!
Hmm it appears like your site ate my first comment (it was super long) so I guess I’ll just sum it up what I
submitted and say, I’m thoroughly enjoying your blog.
I as well am an aspiring blog writer but I’m still new to the
whole thing. Do you have any points for novice blog writers?
I’d really appreciate it.
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Keep up the great work!
Hi jiformalert.org admin, You always provide clear explanations and step-by-step instructions.
My coder is trying to convince me to move to .net from PHP.
I have always disliked the idea because of the costs.
But he’s tryiong none the less. I’ve been using Movable-type on a variety of websites for about a year and am nervous
about switching to another platform. I have heard fantastic things about blogengine.net.
Is there a way I can import all my wordpress posts into it?
Any kind of help would be really appreciated!
Hi jiformalert.org webmaster, Thanks for the educational content!
I am in fact pleased to read this blog posts which consists of lots of helpful data,
thanks for providing such data.
Hello jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well structured and easy to follow.
What’s up, I log on to your new stuff daily. Your humoristic style is awesome, keep doing what you’re doing!
To the jiformalert.org admin, You always provide great examples and real-world applications.
Wow that was strange. I just wrote an very long comment but after
I clicked submit my comment didn’t show up. Grrrr… well I’m not writing all that over again. Anyway, just wanted to say
wonderful blog!
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for the in-depth post!
For latest news you have to go to see world wide web and on the web I found this web site as a best website for latest updates.
Hello jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well-referenced and credible.
I’m really enjoying the design and layout
of your site. It’s a very easy on the eyes which makes it much more enjoyable for me to come here and visit more often. Did you hire out a developer to create your theme?
Fantastic work!
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Thanks for the well-researched and well-written post!
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for the well-organized post!
Hello jiformalert.org webmaster, You always provide helpful information.
Hi there, all is going fine here and ofcourse every one is sharing facts, that’s really good, keep up writing.
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Great job!
Dear jiformalert.org admin, You always provide useful information.
I feel that is one of the so much important information for
me. And i am happy reading your article. However wanna statement on some normal issues, The web site taste is ideal,
the articles is in reality excellent : D. Good activity, cheers
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Thanks for the well-organized and comprehensive post!
I know this web site offers quality dependent articles or reviews and additional data,
is there any other web page which offers these kinds of stuff in quality?
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Thanks for sharing your thoughts!
Hi jiformalert.org webmaster, Your posts are always well-balanced and objective.
Hi jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well written and informative.
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well received by the community.
You ought to take part in a contest for one of the most useful sites on the web.
I most certainly will recommend this website!
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well-referenced and credible.
Remarkable issues here. I’m very satisfied to peer your article.
Thanks a lot and I am looking ahead to touch you. Will you please drop me a e-mail?
Dear jiformalert.org webmaster, Your posts are always well thought out.
Everyone loves it when people come together and share views.
Great blog, continue the good work!
Hi jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always informative and well-explained.
Definitely believe that which you said. Your favorite reason seemed to be on the
internet the simplest factor to take note of.
I say to you, I definitely get irked while people consider concerns that
they just do not recognize about. You managed to hit the nail upon the top
and also outlined out the whole thing without having side effect , folks can take a signal.
Will likely be back to get more. Thank you
To the jiformalert.org owner, Good to see your posts!
To the jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well-referenced and credible.
Highly energetic article, I loved that bit.
Will there be a part 2?
Hello jiformalert.org webmaster, You always provide great information and insights.
Wow that was odd. I just wrote an really long comment but after I clicked
submit my comment didn’t appear. Grrrr… well I’m not
writing all that over again. Anyhow, just wanted to say fantastic blog!
To the jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well-received by the community.
Hi jiformalert.org admin, Keep up the good work, admin!
After I initially left a comment I seem to have clicked on the -Notify
me when new comments are added- checkbox and now each time
a comment is added I get 4 emails with the same comment.
Perhaps there is a way you are able to remove me from that service?
Appreciate it!
Hello jiformalert.org owner, You always provide clear explanations and step-by-step instructions.
Hola! I’ve been following your site for some
time now and finally got the courage to go ahead and give you a shout out from Humble Tx!
Just wanted to mention keep up the excellent job!
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well-timed and relevant.
An outstanding share! I have just forwarded this onto a coworker who has been conducting a little research on this.
And he in fact ordered me lunch simply because I discovered it for him…
lol. So let me reword this…. Thanks for the meal!! But yeah,
thanx for spending the time to talk about this topic here on your site.
Hi jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always well-written and easy to understand.
I visited multiple websites however the audio feature for audio
songs current at this website is genuinely fabulous.
Hi jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well researched and well written.
To the jiformalert.org admin, You always provide great information and insights.
I’m gone to convey my little brother, that he should also pay a visit
this website on regular basis to obtain updated from most up-to-date news.
Hi jiformalert.org webmaster, Your posts are always well structured and easy to follow.
Hurrah, that’s what I was seeking for, what a data! present here at this webpage, thanks admin of this
web page.
To the jiformalert.org administrator, You always provide helpful diagrams and illustrations.
Hello, all the time i used to check website posts here in the early hours in the
break of day, as i love to gain knowledge of more and more.
Dear jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well researched.
Hello jiformalert.org admin, Thanks for the in-depth post!
To the jiformalert.org owner, You always provide great examples and real-world applications.
hair transplant without propecia
Hello jiformalert.org administrator, Your posts are always informative and up-to-date.
Hello jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always informative.
To the jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well-structured and logical.
Вы занимаетесь торговой деятельностью или только мыслите запустить свой бизнес? Мы готовы стать вашим безошибочным партнёром китайской продукции!
Наша компания asiancatalog.ru предоставляет:
— Поиск товаров и производителей прямо в Китае.
— Выкуп товара у товаропроизводителя.
— Поставка до вашего адреса.
— Полное таможенное оформление и сертификация товаров.
— Обслуживание “под ключ”: от поиска до доставки.
Заказ абсолютно любого товара из Китая от хозяйственных товаров до детских игрушек – мы найдем всё, что вам нужно, и поставим по лучшей цене.
Простой и понятный процесс сотрудничества:
1. Вы отправляете нам заявку на интересующий товар.
2. Мы ищем поставщика, рассчитываем цену с учетом поставки и таможенных платежей.
3. После вашего согласия подписываем договор и приступаем к работе.
Ориентированы на бизнесменов! Наш опыт и профессионализм позволяют нам быть в числе лидеров в области поставок из Китая. Доверьте нам заботу о вашем бизнесе, и вы не пожалеете!
Ждем ваших заявок на asiancatalog.ru!
Dear jiformalert.org admin, Your posts are always well presented.
Hello jiformalert.org owner, Your posts are always well researched.
Hi jiformalert.org webmaster, You always provide great examples and real-world applications, thank you for your valuable contributions.
To the jiformalert.org administrator, Well done!
Hi jiformalert.org admin, Thanks for the well-researched and well-written post!